The Effect of Retention Interval on the Confidenceâ€Accuracy Relationship for Eyewitness Identification

Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 DOI 10. 1007/s10979-009-9192-x ORIGINAL ARTICLE The Effect of Retention Interval on the Confidence–Accuracy Relationship for Eyewitness Identification James Sauer ? Neil Brewer ? Tick Zweck ? Nathan Weber Published online: 22 July 2009 O American Psychology-Law Society/Division 41 of the American Psychological Association 2009 Abstract Recent research using a calibration approach indicates that eyewitness confidence assessments obtained immediately after a positive identification decision provide a useful guide as to the likely accuracy of the identification.This study extended research on the boundary conditions of the confidence–accuracy (CA) relationship by varying the retention interval between encoding and identification test. Participants (N = 1,063) viewed one of five different tar- gets in a community setting and attempted an identification from an 8-person target-present or -absent lineup either immediately or several week s later. Compared to the immediate condition, the delay condition produced greater overconfidence and lower diagnosticity.However, for choosers at both retention intervals there was a meaningful CA relationship and diagnosticity was much stronger at high than low confidence levels. Keywords Eyewitness identification Confidence–accuracy Retention interval Calibration Criminal justice systems often use eyewitness identifica- tion evidence when assessing the likely guilt of a suspect or defendant. Yet, the likelihood of eyewitness identification error is well documented by laboratory- and field-based research demonstrating that, when presented with a lineup J.Sauer N. Brewer (&) T. Zweck N. Weber School of Psychology, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia e-mail: neil. [email  protected] edu. au Present Address: J. Sauer Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK and asked to make an identification decision, witnesses sometimes (a) misidentify innocent lineup members as the culprit or (b) fail to identify the culprit when (s)he is present in the lineup (Cutler & Penrod, 1995; Innocence Project, 2009; Pike, Brace, & Kynan, 2002; Wells et al. , 1998). Such dentification errors divert investigative attention from the actual culprit and are likely to under- mine the effectiveness of the criminal justice system. Their impact has motivated a substantial amount of research aimed at identifying markers capable of discriminating accurate from inaccurate identification decisions. Eyewitness confidence is one possible marker of iden- tification accuracy that has been used by forensic decision makers. Not only has confidence been endorsed by the U. S. Supreme Court as one of the criteria to be considered when assessing the likely accuracy of identification evidence (Neil v.Biggers, 1972) but there is also a substantial literature demonstrating that eyewitness confidence influences assessments of likely identification accuracy made by police officers, lawyers, jurors, and jury-eligible samples (e. g. , Bradfield & Wells, 2000; Brewer & Burke, 2002; Cutler, Penrod, & Stuve, 1988; Deffenbacher & Loftus, 1982; Lindsay, Wells, & Rumpel, 1981). Moreover, there are sound theoretical grounds for pre- dicting a meaningful confidence–accuracy (CA) relationship for eyewitness identification decisions, which are a form of recognition memory decision.A number of theories of decision making and confidence processing—such as signal detection theory (Egan, 1958; Green & Swets, 1966; Mac- millan & Creelman, 1991) and accumulator models of decision making and perceptual discrimination (Van Zandt, 2000; Vickers, 1979)—suggest a shared evidential basis for response and response confidence in recognition memory tasks. Both classes of theory hold that confidence stems from the same evidence that drives the decision-making ? 123 338 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 ?process and, consequentl y, conditions facilitating accurate responding (e. . , long exposure durations, focused atten- tion, short retention intervals) should also produce high confidence. Conversely, conditions that hinder accurate responding should also lead to decreased confidence. Although there have been repeated demonstrations of weak or, at best, modest, CA correlations (e. g. , Bothwell, Deffenbacher, & Brigham, 1987; Sporer, Penrod, Read, & Cutler, 1995), empirical support for the diagnostic utility of eyewitness identification confidence—under certain con- ditions—has grown (e. g. Brewer & Wells, 2006; Juslin, Olsson, & Winman, 1996; Lindsay, Nilsen, & Read, 2000; Lindsay, Read, & Sharma, 1998; Sauer, Brewer, & Wells, 2008; Sauerland & Sporer, 2009; Weber & Brewer, 2004). Continued research interest in the CA relationship has been stimulated by two lines of enquiry suggesting that the early correlational work underestimated the CA relationship. First, Lindsay et al. (2000, 1998) arg ued that the homo- geneity of encoding and testing conditions (e. g. , exposure duration, witnesses’ attention to the target stimulus, retention interval, etc. evident in most correlational investigations of the CA relationship for eyewitness iden- tification tasks restricts variation in the quality of participants’ memories for the target. Thus, variations in accuracy and confidence are constrained, and the CA relationship underestimated. Lindsay et al. demonstrated substantial CA correlations across participants making a positive identification when witnessing conditions were varied to produce changes in the quality of the witness’ memory for the target.Second, Juslin et al. (1996) argued that the point-biserial correlation provides only a limited perspective on the CA relationship, whereas an alternative approach—calibra- tion—provides (a) a more detailed representation of the CA relationship and (b) more forensically useful information. The cal ibration approach compares the objective and sub- jective probabilities of a response being correct, determining the proportion of correct responses at each confidence level (typically measured on 0–100% scale).Perfect calibration is obtained when, for example, 100% of all responses made with 100% confidence are accurate, 90% of all responses made with 90% confidence are accurate, etc. This informa- tion is typically plotted on a graph, with the resulting calibration function compared to the ideal function, to assess the CA relationship. In addition to visual inspection of the curve, the calibration approach incorporates a number of statistical tools for assessing the CA relation. First, the cal- ibration (C) statistic indexes the degree of correspondence between the subjective assessment (i. e. confidence) and the objective probability (i. e. , accuracy) of correct recognition, and varies from 0 (perfect calibration) to 1. To calculate the C statistic, the difference between proportion correct and confidence level is computed, and squared, for each confidence level. These values, each multiplied by the number of judgments at the respective confidence level, are then summed and divided by the total number of judgments in the sample. Second, the computation of an over/under- confidence (O/U) statistic indicates the extent to which participants are, generally, more or less confident than they are accurate.The O/U statistic is calculated by subtracting the mean accuracy from the mean confidence of the sample. The O/U statistic can range from -1 to 1, with negative and positive scores indicating underconfidence and overconfi- dence, respectively. Finally, resolution (like the CA correlation) assesses the extent to which confidence dis- criminates correct from incorrect decisions. The Normalized Resolution Index (NRI) ranges from 0 (no discrimination) to 1 (perfect discrimination).The forensic utility of the cali- bration approach, when compared to correlati on, lies in its indication of probable accuracy for each level of confidence. As Juslin et al. (1996) note, the knowledge that the CA correlation is, for example, . 28 does not help assess the accuracy of an individual identification made with 80% confidence. On the other hand, knowing that 80% (or 70, or 90%) of identifications made with 80% confidence are cor- rect provides a guide for assessing the likely reliability of an individual identification decision.Studies using the calibration approach have not only provided detailed information on the CA relationship but, in so doing, have also demonstrated robust CA relation- ships when participants positively identify a lineup member as the culprit (e. g. , Brewer & Wells, 2006; Juslin et al. , 1996; Sauerland & Sporer, 2009), provided confi- dence is assessed immediately after the identification is made (Bradfield, Wells, & Olson, 2002; Brewer, Weber, & Semmler, 2007). The reason for the poor CA relations typically observed for non- choosers remains unclear.However, it is well understood why delaying the assess- ment of confidence is harmful to the CA relation. As outlined above, the relationship between memory quality, confidence, and accuracy is fundamental to the CA rela- tionship. However, confidence can be shaped not only by memory quality but also by various social, environmental, and meta-cognitive influences (see Wells, 1993). As the influence of these non-memorial factors increases, the degree to which confidence reflects the evidential basis it shares with accuracy decreases and, in turn, the CA relation weakens.Research testing the boundary conditions for CA cali- bration is under way. The difference in CA relations for choosers and non-choosers, and the deleterious effects of delaying assessments of confidence on the CA relationship, are well documented. Brewer and Wells (2006) examined the effects on CA calibration of varying instructional bias, foil similarity, and target-absent base rates, while Weber and Brewer (2003) tested the effect of varying the 123 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 339 confidence scale on CA calibration in basic face recogni- tion tasks. The present study further probes the boundary conditions for CA calibration by investigating the effects of varying the retention interval between encoding and the identification test on the CA relationship. Retention interval is a variable of particular interest for three main reasons. First, witnesses to actual crimes com- monly experience delays ranging from hours to months between viewing an event and being asked to make an identification decision. For example, Pike et al. 2002) report UK survey data revealing a median delay of over 10 weeks between police requesting and administering a lineup, although they noted that more conservative esti- mates put the average delay at just over a month. Regardless, it seems safe to assume that the average retention interval for the witness (i. e. , between viewing the c rime and viewing the lineup) is longer. In contrast, retention intervals employed to date in laboratory-based investigations of CA calibration for eyewitness (e. g. , 15 min in Brewer & Wells, 2006) and face recognition memory tasks (e. . , 3–10 min in Weber & Brewer, 2003, 2004, 2006) are considerably shorter and less varied in range. Juslin et al. ’s (1996) CA calibration study provides an exception by employing 1 h and 1 week retention intervals, and their findings are addressed below. The emphasis placed on confidence by decision makers in the forensic setting makes understanding the effect of length- ened delays on the efficacy of confidence in discriminating accurate from inaccurate identification decisions a matter of forensic significance.Second, theories of recognition and recall memory function suggest that, in general, the quantity, quality, and/ or accessibility of information stored in memory decreases over time. This claim is supported by a large body of research literature demonstrating that, across a variety of memory task paradigms, increases in retention interval generally produce decreases in recognition and recall memory performance (e. g. , Deffenbacher, Bornstein, McGorty, & Penrod, 2008; Ebbinghaus, 1964; Schacter, 1999). Thus, variations in retention interval should produce variations in accuracy.While memory strength is the pro- posed basis for both confidence and accuracy (e. g. , Egan, 1958; Green & Swets, 1966; Macmillan & Creelman, 1991) and, hence, variations in memory strength should affect both components of the CA relationship, it is unclear whether the effects on confidence and accuracy will be equivalent. Previous research demonstrates that changes in accuracy are not always accompanied by equivalent changes in confidence (e. g. , Weber & Brewer, 2004) and, further, that various manipulations can influence confi- dence, and the CA association, independent of effects on accuracy (e. . , Busey, Tunnicliff, Loftus, & Loftus, 2000). Investigations of the CA relation for eyewitness recall memory suggest that repeated questioning produces con- fidence inflation (Shaw, 1996; Shaw & McClure, 1996). For recognition memory, providing post-identification feedback, encouraging witnesses to reflect on whether their encoding conditions were likely to facilitate or hinder identification accuracy, and having witnesses consider their behavior during the identification process all produce variations in the CA relation, without affecting accuracy (e. g. , Bradfield et al. 2002; Brewer, Keast, & Rishworth, 2002; Kassin, 1985; Kassin, Rigby, & Castillo, 1991). In sum, it is clear that despite the strong theoretical link between confidence, accuracy, and memory strength, non- memorial factors can lead to CA dissociation. Thus, while the effect of increased retention interval on memory strength (and accuracy) is predictable, the effect of increased retention interval on CA calibration is not. Third, while numero us studies have investigated the effect of varied retention interval on recognition and recall memory accuracy (see Deffenbacher et al. 2008 for a review), studies probing the effect of varied retention interval on the CA relationship are scarce. Lindsay et al. (1998) varied retention interval, but it was manipulated in conjunction with a number of other variables in an effort to exert a compounded effect on memory quality. Further, they assessed the CA relation using correlation and, thus, their findings do not allow specific predictions regarding CA calibration (see also Lindsay et al. , 1981). As men- tioned above, Juslin et al. varied retention interval and found no ifference in CA calibration for identifications made after retention intervals of 1 h and 1 week. However, Juslin et al. ’s investigation is limited in two important ways. First, their manipulation of retention interval exerted a negligible effect on accuracy (correct identification rates were . 69 and . 64 fo r the 1 h and 1 week conditions, respectively). Thus, there is no evidence that participants’ memories were challenged by the additional delay, and these findings are unable to speak to the effect of delay- induced memory degradation on CA calibration. Juslin et al. resented an additional CA calibration curve, based on a different dataset from that described in the article, which (a) combined data from a 1 week and 3 month retention interval condition and (b) suggested a meaningful CA relation in the upper half of the confidence scale. However, for three reasons, this curve is not informative regarding the effect of retention interval. First, the exper- imental methodology and data underpinning this curve remain (to our knowledge) unpublished. Second, the absence of any accuracy data precludes an assessment of any decline in memory associated with the increased retention interval.Third, derivation of a calibration curve given such a small sample required collapsing data acros s retention interval conditions, and no indication was given of the relevant contribution of data from each retention 123 340 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 ?interval condition. Thus, we have no way of knowing to what extent this curve reflects the influence of either the shorter or longer of the two retention intervals. Simply put, Juslin et al. ’s initial manipulation of retention interval was not strong enough to affect memory quality, and the introduction of the additional data did not overcome this limitation.Second, after presenting a lineup but prior to making an identification decision, Juslin et al. (1996) had participants rate their confidence that any lineup member was presented at encoding. Brewer et al. (2002) found that having par- ticipants consider encoding conditions prior to rating confidence improved CA calibration. In a similar way Juslin et al. ’s initial rating task may have aided calibration. For example, if a participant rates the likeli hood that a lineup member was present at encoding as high, (s)he is likely to pick and do so with high confidence.Alterna- tively, if (s)he rates this likelihood as low but still chooses, confidence (and accuracy) is likely to be low. This pre- decision rating task may have improved CA calibration. Further, other research suggests that encouraging witnesses to consider confidence prior to making an identification can alter the decision making process and decision accuracy (e. g. , Fleet, Brigham, & Bothwell, 1987). In addition to these two major limitations, two idiosyn- crasies in Juslin et al. ’s (1996) methodology may have affected the CA relation observed.First, Juslin et al. used a target-absent base rate of . 25, rather than the . 50 base rate typical of eyewitness CA calibration research (and used in this research). While there is no reason to assume a . 50 target-absent base rate in the applied setting (with the typ- ically used . 50 target-absent base rate perhaps re presenting a considerable overestimation), differences in the target- absent base rate affect CA calibration (Brewer & Wells, 2006). Second, the researchers provided instructions on calibration and interpretation of the confidence scale.Prior to eliciting confidence estimates, Juslin et al. informed participants that a positive identification accompanied by a confidence estimate of 0% amounted to a contradiction. While this logic may be sound, positive identifications are sometimes made with very low (even 0%) confidence, and this instruction may have influenced participants’ confi- dence estimates and, consequently, the CA relationship observed. Taken together, these differences are sufficient to raise doubts about the generalizability of Juslin et al. ’s findings.Specifically, given that accuracy was barely affected by the manipulation, and that the rating task and lower target-absent base rate may have enhanced calibra- tion and reduced underconfidence (cf. Brewer e t al. , 2002; Brewer & Wells, 2006), Juslin et al. ’s (1996) study does not represent an adequate test of the effect of increased reten- tion interval on CA calibration. CA calibration in Juslin et al. ’s shorter retention interval condition was already strong. Thus, any over-estimation of the CA relation resulting from Juslin et al. s methodology would most likely also manifest in the longer retention interval, increasing the likelihood of obtaining similar CA relations across conditions. CA calibration research in the eyewitness identification area is in its infancy. The paucity of research in this area is understandable given the large number of participants required to generate stable estimates of CA calibration. Indeed, most of what is currently understood in this area relies on laboratory research using a limited range of stimulus materials. Only one study has previously exam- ined CA calibration using a field study methodology (Sauerland & Sporer, 2009).The pres ent research advances understanding of the CA relationship in three main ways. First, we used the CA calibration approach to examine the effect of retention interval on the CA relation, contrasting the CA relation for a virtually immediate identification test with that for one conducted between 3 and 7 weeks after the encoding event (and producing lower identification accuracy). Second, we used five different sets of encoding and test stimuli and, third, we tested the robustness of the CA relation in a field setting that provided varied and more realistic encoding conditions (cf.Lindsay et al. , 1998). METHOD Design A 2 (retention interval: immediate test versus delayed test) 9 2 (target-presence: present versus absent), between- subjects design was used to test the effect of varied retention interval on the confidence–accuracy relationship using multiple target stimuli in a field setting. Participants A total of 1,063 (548 female) participants provided data for this research . Participant ages ranged from 15 to 85 (M = 29. 21, SD = 14. 33). A functional grasp of the Eng- lish language was the only prerequisite for participation. MaterialsPhotographs of the target were cropped to present the individual, from the shoulders up, against a plain white/ gray background, and were approximately 55 mm 9 55 mm in size. Non-target (i. e. , foil) photographs were selected from our laboratory’s large database using a match-description strategy, with foil selection requiring agreement between the researchers and the experimenter from each pair that the foils matched the target’s 123 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 341 ?description. In sum, five different sets of target-present and target-absent lineups were constructed.For each target, identical foils were used for target-present and -absent lineups. Target-absent lineups were created by replacing the target with another foil photograph. However, as dis- cussed in the ‘‘Resultsâ€℠¢Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ section, because the designation of individual foils as target-replacements was arbitrary, the target-replacement is not analogous to an innocent suspect. Procedure Ten female, third-year honors psychology students col- lected data as part of a work experience course-component. The 10 students split into pairs with one acting as the researcher and the other as the target.Targets were of either Caucasian or Mediterranean appearance. Data were collected at various locations ranging from on-campus to city streets to parkland areas. While the target remained out of sight, the researcher approached members of the public (individually) and asked if they would like to participate in a psychology experiment. If the individual agreed, the researcher signaled to her partner who moved into the participant’s view, and remained in view for 10 s. Targets were viewed at a pre-measured distance of 10 m, and participants were instructed to attend to the target for the full 10 s.Afte r encoding, participants were allocated to either an immediate or delayed testing condition. Data were obtained from 691 participants in the immediate condition and from 372 participants in the delayed condition (i. e. , only about 55% of participants approached in the delayed condition responded). Participants in the immediate con- dition were asked to perform an identification task. The researcher read the following instructions to the partici- pant: ‘‘I’m now going to ask you to try and pick the person you just saw out of a group of photographs on this sheet†¦ ’ The researcher then presented the participant with a laminated piece of A4 paper displaying eight, clearly numbered, color photographs organized into two rows of four faces. The instructions continued: ‘‘The person may or may not be present in the lineup. If you think the person is not present, please say ‘not present’. Please indicate the number of the person who is the person you have just viewed’’. The researcher then recorded the participant’s response, asked the participant to indicate their confidence in the accuracy of their response on an 11-point scale (0–100%), and collected some demographic information.Participants in the delayed condition provided an email address and were contacted approximately 18–21 days after encoding, and provided with a link to an online data collection system. Actual retention intervals ranged from 20 to 50 days (M = 23, SD = 5). When entered into the system, participant email addresses were matched to the relevant researcher/target pair to ensure that each partici- pant viewed the correct lineup for their target stimulus. Participants accessed the online system and were presented with instructions generally identical to those reported above.However, rather than indicating responses verbally, participants in the delayed condition made identification decisions by either (a) c licking the photo of the lineup member they believed to be the target, or (b) clicking a button labeled ‘‘Not Present’’ at the bottom of the screen. Similarly, participants entered their confidence estimate by clicking one of eleven on-screen buttons representing the levels of confidence indicated above. Participants in the delayed condition were asked for the same demographic information as those in the immediate condition.Target- presence was counterbalanced in both the immediate and delayed conditions to achieve an equal number of target- present and -absent trials. RESULTS Retention Interval and Accuracy Chi-square analyses performed on response accuracy for the delayed and immediate conditions found predictable effects of retention interval for both choosers, v2(1, N = 614) = 11. 59, p . 001, w = 0. 14, and non-choosers, v2(1, N = 449) = 13. 85, p. 001, w = 0. 18.In both cases, accuracy was greater in the immediate condition (62 and 82% for choosers a nd non-choosers, respectively) than in the delayed condition (47 and 66% for choosers and non- choosers, respectively). Thus, the effect of increased retention interval on identification accuracy was consistent with the expected reduction in memory quality. As found by Juslin et al. (1996) and Sauerland & Sporer (2009), accuracy rates for non-choosers were significantly higher than for choosers in both the immediate, v2(1, N = 691) = 32. 24, p . 001, w = 0. 22, and delayed condi- tions, v2(1, N = 372) = 13. 4, p . 001, w = 0. 19. The present non-chooser accuracy and diagnosticity data (see below) lend support to previous research demonstrating that lineup rejections can inform assessments of the likely guilt of a suspect (e. g. , Clark, Howell, & Davey, 2008; Wells & Olson, 2002). Retention Interval and the CA Relation To enhance the stability of the plotted CA calibration functions, confidence data were collapsed from the 11 initial confidence categories (i. e. , 0–100%) t o five (i. e. , 0– 20%, 30–40%, 50–60%, 70–80%, 90–100%) (see Brewer & Wells, 2006; Juslin et al. , 1996).Moreover, because foils are known in advance to be innocent, we excluded target- 123 342 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 ?present, foil identifications from our calibration analyses (see Brewer & Wells, 2006). However, as there was no actual police suspect in the target-absent lineups, all false identifications of foils from target-absent lineups were included in calibration analyses, a practice that necessarily inflates the degree of overconfidence. 1 Table 1 presents the distributions of confidence ratings for choosers and non-choosers, in the immediate and delayed conditions, according to identification response.Given the well-documented differences in the CA rela- tion for choosers and non-choosers, we present CA calibration analyses separately for these two groups (see Tables 1 and 2, and Fig. 1). In both retention interval conditio ns, meaningful CA relationships for choosers are apparent. Visual inspection of choosers’ CA calibration functions (Fig. 1) shows increasing accuracy as confidence increases for both retention intervals. Moreover, in the upper section of the confidence scale, the immediate and delayed condition curves are almost identical.While reli- ance on visual inspection may appear to lack rigor, the standard error bars for each confidence interval permit an estimation of the stability of the results obtained. Over- lapping standard error bars (evident for the two highest confidence intervals of the chooser curves) denote non- reliable differences between groups. Table 1 presents the diagnosticity ratios for each con- fidence category. Diagnosticity ratios indicate the likely reliability of an identification decision, in this case, according to the level of confidence expressed.Chooser diagnosticity ratios compare the likelihood that a guilty suspect will be identified to the likelihood that an innocent suspect will be identified. The procedure for separating suspect from foil identifications from target-absent lineups is complex. In contrast to the forensic setting, the labora- tory setting provides no basis for designating any particular member of a target-absent lineup as the suspect (cf. Brewer & Wells, 2006). Accordingly, we calculated target-absent suspect identification rates by dividing the total number of target-absent false identifications by the number of lineup members (i. e. , eight).Non-chooser diagnosticity ratios compare the probability that the witness responds not- present, given the target is not-present, to the probability that the witness responds not-present, given the target is present. Both retention interval conditions show increased diagnosticity at each successive confidence interval. Thus, when a suspect is identified, an increase in witness 1 Including only target-replacement identifications as false identifi- cations from target-absent lineups resulted in only 13 and 6% (in the immediate and delayed conditions, respectively) of all target-absent misidentifications being available for calibration analyses.Split over the five confidence intervals, these data is insufficient to provide stable estimates of calibration. Table 1 Diagnosticity ratios and number of responses (according to response type) for each confidence interval, for choosers and non- choosers in the immediate and delayed testing conditions ? Condition & response Confidence level (%) 0–20 30–40 50–60 70–80 90–100 Overall Immediate—choosers Correct 5 identification Foil identification 1 False identification 9 Overall 15 Diagnosticityratio 6. 68 SEDiagnosticity 2. 71 Delayed—choosers Correct 1 identificationFoil identification 5 False identification 9 Overall 15 Diagnosticity ratio 1. 56 SEDiagnosticity 1. 66 Immediate—non-choosers Correct rejection 6 Incorrect rejection 4 Overall 10 Diagnosticity ratio 1. 01 SEDiagnosticity 0. 57 Delayed—non-choosers 12 40 103 90 250 6 18 12 4 41 13 31 43 18 114 31 89 158 112 405 8. 87 11. 08 18. 74 37. 79 17. 80 2. 40 1. 91 2. 56 8. 61 1. 49 5 16 39 38 99 5 8 9 3 30 11 25 24 10 79 21 49 72 51 208 4. 02 6. 28 13. 63 20. 47 10. 12 1. 83 1. 52 2. 63 6. 23 1. 11 11 42 91 84 234 2 10 22 14 52 13 52 113 98 286 4. 68 3. 91 4. 23 6. 35 4. 44 5. 91 1. 31 0. 89 1. 71 0. 0 Correct rejection Incorrect rejection Overall Diagnosticity ratio SEDiagnosticity 5 10 25 41 27 108 2 9 16 14 14 55 7 19 41 55 41 163 1. 48 1. 01 1. 23 2. 79 2. 87 1. 92 1. 62 0. 35 0. 30 0. 74 0. 76 0. 25 ? confidence is accompanied by an increase in the probability that the identified suspect is guilty. There are, however, some differences apparent between the two retention interval conditions for choosers. A modified jackknife procedure (Koriat, Lichtenstein, & Fischhoff, 1980; Mosteller & Tukey, 1968) was performed on the C, O/U, and NRI statistics obtained for each rete ntion interval condition.The jackknife procedure involves repeated calculation of each of the three statistics above, with each calculation omitting data from a different, individual participant. As many calculations are run as there are participants. This permits the calculation of mean and standard error data (Table 2) for the statistics obtained which, in turn, allows an assessment of differences in the relevant measures between groups. While these jackknife mean and standard error data cannot be subjected to inferential testing, they are intended to allow researchers to ? 123Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 343 100 80 60 40 20 Table 2 Calibration (C), overconfidence (O/U), and Normalized Resolution Index (NRI) statistics, for choosers and non-choosers, in the immediate and delayed testing conditions Measure Statistic C Value Jackknife SE O/U Value Jackknife SE NRI Value Jackknife SE Choosers Non-choosers Immediate Delay Immediate Delay 0. 01 0. 04 0. 00 0. 01 0. 09 0. 1 9 0. 02 0. 03 0. 10 0. 17 0. 03 0. 05 0. 03 0. 04 0. 01 0. 02 -0. 08 0. 01 0. 02 0. 04 0. 02 0. 02 0. 02 0. 02 ?Immediate Choosers Delayed Choosers 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 n the immediate condition. This produces differences between conditions in three measures of the CA relation: the visual appearance of calibration function, the O/U statistic, and the NRI statistic. First, the calibration curve for the immediate condition flattens out in the lower half of the confidence scale, rather than following the ideal func- tion. Further, the curve for the immediate condition shifts from overconfidence in the higher confidence intervals to underconfidence in the lower confidence intervals, a pattern not observed in the delayed condition.In addition to pro- ducing a visual flattening of the curve, this transition from overconfidence to underconfidence has important effects on two of the statistical measures of the CA relationship. It drives the immediate condition O/U statistic toward its mid-po int (i. e. , 0). Consequently, although the immediate condition curve exhibits noticeable underconfidence and overconfidence at the relevant extremes of the confidence scale, this is not reflected in the O/U statistic for that condition, thereby exaggerating the apparent difference in overconfidence between conditions.Finally, as evidenced by the NRI statistics (Table 2), it reduces the overall level of discrimination provided by confidence in the immediate condition. This discrepancy between conditions at the lower confidence extremes is addressed further in the ‘‘Discussion’’. The second difference between the CA relations for choosers in the delayed and immediate conditions is evident in the diagnosticity ratios reported for each confidence interval (Table 1).Consistent with the reported overall drop in identification accuracy associated with the delayed con- dition, the degree of diagnosticity at each confidence interval is greater in the immediate than delayed condition. Further, although no difference in overconfidence is appar- ent between conditions in the higher confidence brackets, the difference in diagnosticity persists. Nonetheless, as outlined above, the finding of increased diagnosticity with increased confidence is consistent (for choosers) across conditions.In sum, the CA relations observed for choosers in the two retention interval conditions differ in terms of the Confidence 100 80 60 40 20 ?Immediate Non-Choosers Delayed Non-Choosers 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 Confidence Fig. 1 Confidence–accuracy (CA) calibration curves for choosers (upper panel) and non-choosers (lower panel) in the delayed and immediate testing conditions. Error bars represent standard errors draw inferences in conditions where data violate assump- tions of conventional inferential testing techniques (Sheskin, 2004).Because the jackknife means replicated the original values in every case, only the original values are reported. Inspection of the calibration functions, together with the O/U statistics (Table 2), suggests greater overconfidence for the delayed compared to the immediate condition. However, two aspects of the calibration information justify qualification of this general observation. First, for the two highest confidence categories, the standard error bars for the two functions overlap suggesting no meaningful dif- ference in over/underconfidence.The applied value of this similarity at the higher confidence intervals is addressed in the ‘‘Discussion’’. Second, the overall difference in over- confidence between conditions is, in fact, exaggerated by underconfidence in the lower half of the calibration curve 123 % Correct % Correct 344 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 ?general overconfidence and discriminability, due primarily to the trend toward underconfidence at low confidence levels in the immediate condition. However, in the upper half of the confidence scale, the conditions pr oduce highly similar calibration functions.For non-choosers, both retention interval conditions produced the typically weak CA relations observed in previous CA calibration research. Further, any variations in diagnosticity between confidence levels were small and unsystematic in both conditions. While this absence of resolution might normally be taken as an indication that a confident rejection should not be given any special status, this needs to be considered in the context of accuracy rates for rejections usually being high. Thus, from an applied perspective, provided the conditions are such that non-chooser accuracy is high (e. . , unbiased lineup instructions, good encoding conditions), it is important to note that a highly confident rejection is as good a guide to (in)accuracy as a confident ID. Importantly also, an unconfident rejection is also likely to be as accu- rate as a confident ID. The CA correlation patterns are generally in line with previous research (e. g. , Lind say et al. , 1998; Sporer et al. , 1995). CA correlations of moderate strength were found for choosers in both the immediate (r (405) = 0. 32, p . 001) and delayed conditions (r (209) = 0. 41, p . 001).While these values lie toward the high end of typically reported CA correlations, the relationships are still only moderate in size. Consistent with previous research, correlations for non-choosers were weak and non-significant in both the immediate (r (286) = . 09, ns) and delayed conditions (r (163) = . 06, ns). DISCUSSION While the dominant perspective in eyewitness identifica- tion research has been that the CA relationship is, at best, a weak one, recent research—underpinned by theoretically motivated changes in design and analysis techniques—has demonstrated meaningful CA relationships when certain pre-conditions are met.The present study extends this research, providing an important test of the boundary conditions of the CA relation. Variation in retention inter val is (a) theoretically linked to variation in memory quality (and, thus, confidence and accuracy), (b) typical in the forensic setting, and (c) atypical in psychological investigations of the CA relation. Further, the emphasis placed on confidence when assessing the reliability of identification evidence in the forensic setting makes the effect of varied retention interval on the CA relationship an issue of applied and theoretical relevance.The most striking feature of our examination of the effect of retention interval on the CA relationship is the consistency of the findings across retention interval con- ditions. Consistent with previous calibration research in the eyewitness and face recognition paradigms (e. g. , Brewer & Wells, 2006; Juslin et al. , 1996; Sauerland & Sporer, 2009; Weber & Brewer, 2003, 2004, 2006), confidence and accuracy were meaningfully related for choosers in both the immediate and delayed conditions, particularly in the upper half of the confidence scal e.Further, both conditions show systematic increases in diagnosticity with increased witness confidence. Compared to the immediate condition, the delayed condition demonstrated an increase in general overconfidence and a decrease in the absolute levels of diagnosticity. However, such differences are equally likely to occur when retention interval is held constant but target stimuli or instructional bias are varied (e. g. , Brewer & Wells, 2006).Of primary importance is the finding that the fundamental nature of the CA relationship, as evidenced by the shape of the calibration functions and the systematic relationship between confidence and diagnosticity, did not vary meaningfully between conditions. As Bruck and Poole (2002) note, albeit it in a different context, when assessing consistency across conditions, patterns of findings are often more informative than individual numbers. While our conclusions may be similar to those of Juslin et al. 1996) in that CA calibration was still e vident when the retention interval was extended, our findings add sig- nificantly to our understanding of the effect of retention interval on the CA relation. Whereas there was no evidence that Juslin et al. ’s retention interval manipulation affected memory strength, our manipulation clearly affected rec- ognition memory performance and yet evidence of CA calibration persisted. Moreover, CA calibration was evi- dent at the longer retention interval in our study, despite the absence of several methodological features contained in Juslin et al. s research that may have buttressed the CA calibration detected at their longer retention interval. This suggests that these idiosyncrasies were not sufficient to affect the CA association. Additionally, by providing data from a field setting using multiple sets of encoding and test materials, our study provides an important pointer to the likely generality of the above conclusions. The improved diagnosticity in both retention interval conditions evident at the upper confidence levels has significant forensic implications.Highly confident identi- fications, when compared to those made with low confidence, are likely to have a greater impact on police investigations and jury decision making. For example, in the absence of other compelling evidence, police are more likely to proceed with a case given a highly confident identification than given an identification made with low confidence. Further, compared to an identification made with low confidence, an identification made with high confidence is likely to be more persuasive in the 123 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 345 courtroom, and thus exert a more pronounced effect on juror assessments of likely guilt. Thus, it is reassuring that the identification decisions likely to exert the greatest influence in criminal justice system are those for which (a) diagnosticity is greatest and (b) there was no significant variation in CA relationship associated with inc reased retention interval. We emphasize here, of course, that we are talking only about relationships detected when confi- dence was measured and recorded immediately after the identification, and not when opportunities for influencing confidence judgments had occurred.A potentially interesting difference between the CA relations obtained in the two conditions presents in the lower half of the confidence scale for the chooser curves. As previously outlined, while the immediate condition curve exhibited underconfidence in the lower confidence levels, the delayed condition curve maintained its resem- blance to the ideal function (i. e. , low confidence ratings were accompanied by equivalently poor identification performance). As noted earlier, confidence judgments may be shaped not only by memory strength but also by various non-memorial factors.It may be the case that, because the immediate condition provided virtually no time for the memory trace to degrade, very low confidence esti mates in this condition reflected the influence of misleading meta- cognitive inferences. In contrast, the delayed condition allowed for significantly greater degradation in memory trace, and, consequently, a greater drop in identification accuracy than did the immediate condition. In the delayed condition, very low confidence was perhaps more likely to reflect poor memory quality and, consequently, predict very poor performance.Thus, in this condition, confidence and accuracy corresponded more closely at the lower confidence levels, and the overall level of confidence-based discrimination increased (as evidenced by the NRI statis- tics). The improved resolution associated with the longer retention interval in the present study supports claims made by Lindsay et al. (2000, 1998) that the CA relation (and, in particular, resolution) is likely to be most evident in con- ditions that produce greatest variability in witnesses’ memory strength.However, given the low number of data points for these confidence categories, any conclusions must be tentative. Moreover, from an applied perspective, the data clearly show that low confidence identifications are associated with low accuracy (regardless of the exis- tence of over- or underconfidence). We should note three features of this study that might possibly have influenced the pattern of results obtained. First, despite email reminders to participants in the delay condition, there was still significant attrition.If it turns out that those conscientious enough to respond were also more conscientious—and, importantly, effective—when deter- mining confidence judgments, then it is conceivable that the strength of the CA relation is overestimated in our delay condition. However, we know of no evidence that could sustain an argument either way on this issue. Second, our retention interval manipulation was confounded with method of responding. Participants in the immediate test condition provided their r esponses during face-to-face interactions with the researcher, while delayed condition participants responded via computer.As previously noted, social influence can undermine the confidence–accuracy relationship. However, given (a) the similarity of CA rela- tionships evident between conditions in this experiment and (b) the similarity in CA relationships between the imme- diate condition in this experiment and previous work using similar (i. e. , relatively short though not immediate) reten- tion intervals and non-face-to-face responding (Brewer & Wells, 2006; Weber & Brewer, 2003, 2004, 2006), there is no reason to believe that method of responding exerted a significant effect on the results obtained.Third, for ethical reasons the encoded event in our field study did not involve a crime. Whether this might influence the CA relationship is also not known, though there is no obvious reason why this variable should interact with retention interval. What we do know, of course, is that the most reliable determinant of variations in the degree of over/underconfidence is task difficulty (see Brewer, 2006; Weber & Brewer, 2004), with our various stimuli providing tasks of sufficient difficulty to produce over- rather than under-confidence and, predict- ably, greater overconfidence in the delay condition.In sum, this research asked: Does an increase in retention interval undermine the meaningful CA relationships reported in recent research? These results suggest not, at least not for retention intervals in the range used here. For choosers in both the delayed and immediate conditions, increased confidence was associated with increased proba- ble accuracy. While this finding is encouraging, one important caveat is required. Although retention interval did not affect the CA relationship observed, many factors capable of distorting the CA relation over time in the forensic setting (e. g. confirming feedback/interaction with co-witnesses, repeated post-event quest ioning) were not addressed in our approach. It would be premature to suggest that, in the forensic setting, confidence-based discrimina- tion of accuracy will not ever vary with increased retention interval. Simply increasing retention does not, by itself, seem to dampen the CA relation, but increased retention intervals may be associated with increased exposure to other factors likely to affect the relationship between con- fidence and accuracy. Moreover, it should be noted that retention intervals long enough to reduce identification accuracy to chance levels (i. . , likely much longer than in this study) would constrain variation in accuracy, reducing the extent to which confidence can discriminate accurate from inaccurate identification decisions. 123 346 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 ?Acknowledgments This research was supported by grant DP0556876 from the Australian Research Council and a Flinders Research Grant. We are grateful to Monica Beshara, Megan Cant, Danielle Chant, Kelly Ferber, Suzana Freegard, Caitlin Hithcock, Michaela O’Keefe, Lucy Pillay, Carla Raphael, Nancy Whitaker, and Anneke Woods for their assistance with data collection. REFERENCESBothwell, R. K. , Deffenbacher, K. A. , & Brigham, J. C. (1987). Correlations of eyewitness accuracy and confidence: Optimality hypothesis revisited. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 691– 695. Bradfield, A. L. , & Wells, G. L. (2000). 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Law & Human Behavior, 22, 603–647.

A Case Study On Banque Accord: A Closer Look

Banque Accord is a subsidiary of financial giant the Auchan Group1. Founded in 1983, Banque Accord was established in two stages: In 1983, with the issuance of â€Å"Accord† retail cards in Auchan’s hypermarkets; and, in 1987, with Auchan’s acquisition of Banque Delort, a subsidiary and affiliate of the banking group known as Credit Commercial de France2. Auchan subsequently called its newly acquired bank as â€Å"Banque Accord 3.  Ã¢â‚¬ The newly acquired bank’s mission was to customize the rules that have proven successful in the area of retail distribution and bring it to the financial services field, by allowing consumers to avail of simple yet innovative discounted products and services. 4 Essentially, Banque Accord operates as a bank aligned with the credit and retail industries in general5. Put simply, Banque Accord brings electronic banking functions to retailers, and payment and financing options like cards and consumer credit, closer to its c onsumers.As a rule, the purchase of financial resources is backed by sound ratings from globally respected institutions like Moodys and Standard & Poor. For the year 2006, Banque Accord received higher ratings compared to the previous year6. Moody’s gave the bank an A2 grade, while S&P gave it an A or â€Å"Stable† rating7. To note, the word â€Å"Accord† suggests being able to agree on â€Å"financial solutions† for the company’s clients8. The dynamism of Banque Accord, which eventually became well-respected in international financial circles, is due to the fact that it is wholly-owned by a bank and a retail group.Since its inception, Banque Accord has noteworthy achievements, four of which are9: (1) consolidating – in the same organization – electronic banking, issuing of retail cards and providing credit to consumers; (2) creating a network of banking instruments in shopping centers; (3) an ever-widening range of goods and products available to clients (such as payment card facilities and services, revolving credit, traditional credit, and the like. 10); and (4) its takeover of Egg France in 2004, permitting direct online access under the monicker Oney.fr/ These factors, combined with the marketing genius of its Chief Executive Officer Damien Guermonprez, Banque Accord has evolved in 2006, into an international presence with operations in nine countries, and a database of 4,800,000 customers11. 1 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 2) 2 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 3) 3 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 4) 4 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 4) 5 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 16) 6 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 16) 7 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 16) 8 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 3) 9 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 3) 10 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 3) 11 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 3) Banque Accord: A Case Study 1In Banque Accord’s financial disclosures for 2006, the company reflected a EUR353,167,000 increase in assets in just 12 months12. Banque Accord also reported a net income of EUR34,413,000 in 2005, as compared to EUR24,206,000 in 2 00413. Despite the potential for further international growth, Banque Accord has to contend with possible areas of difficulties, which include14: (a) the use of mobile phones as potential replacement for bank cards in transactions; (b) innovations in consumer credit; and (c) the development of e-business in the retailing industry.Regardless of these trends that Banque Accord has to contend with, the bank continue to be innovative and continues to explore newer concepts to maintain its prestige and originality in the banking and retail industries. 12 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 17) 13 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 17) 14 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 17) 15 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 3) Banque Accord: A Case Study 2 I. The Auchan Group Founded in 1961 by Gerard Mulliez, the Auchan Group started out in the North area of France with one hypermarket, which, simply defined, is a commercial complex which combines a department store with a supermarket16.Currently, in 2006, the Auchan Group runs 360 hypermarkets spread across 11 cou ntries. In France, Auchan operates 654 supermarkets 17. Since the inception of Auchan, the company’s vision has remained the same. That is, to improve the purchasing power of its customers 18. Banque Accord is an Auchan subsidiary which has developed an identity of its own within the Auchan Group. Nevertheless, Banque Accord’s mission is identical to Auchan’s, and in essence, the bank has a dual vision 19:†¢ customer oriented: providing its clients with a means to purchase; and †¢ corporate oriented: assisting Auchan in maximizing turnover and revenue, therefore aiding the Group to reduce costs. Accordingly, Banque Acord’s mission, â€Å"The bank for consumers† is aimed towards Auchan’s clients at the hypermarkets 20. Banque Accord achieves its mission by making available to Auchan’s clients, certain services like discounted financial options and payments which are directly accessible to these clients.Being a part of the Auc han Group is a contributing factor to Banque Accord’s human resources practices: By training a group of responsible professionals who consider their jobs fulfilling, the company is able to achieve growth and guarantee their clients quality service21. II. Banque Accord’s Internal Strengths In studying the case of Banque Accord, one is accosted with the company’s inherent strengths. Whatever weaknesses there might be for the company, these are easily addressed based on the operating standards adopted by the Bank. Nevertheless, inherent strengths of Banque Accord include: A. European Market ShareThe modes of payment offered by Banque Accord is characterized by diverseness, regulatory and technical issues and the intricacy of the value chain of the industry22. Cash payment is predominant in 16 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 4) 17 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 4) 18 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 5) 19 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 5) 20 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 5) 21 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 5) 22 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 6) Banque Acc ord: A Case Study 3 Spain, Italy and Germany23. However, majority of Banque Accord’s clients in Great Britain and France use bank cards24. The bank card is considered a â€Å"pivotal† product for the company that issued it25.The card can be very much compared to a traditional bank’s checking or current account, which is most convenient for customers to use. Retailers or outlets that have tie-ups with bank cards are able to sell â€Å"progressively†, in coordination with various financial services like cross-selling or up-selling26. The European market where Banque Accord mainly operates was reportedly worth EUR930 billion in outstanding credit in 2005 (Source L’observateur Cetelem), and is manifesting fast growths in many countries27. Within Europe, where Banque Accord operates, there are distinct differences between countries.In Great Britain for example, the average outstanding credit per household is double that of France’s28. In simple w ords, buyers in Great Britain have greater use for bank cards than customers in France do. The differences between countries may be attributed to diverse cultural orientations, regulatory requirements and marketing procedures29. Another example is: frequently, young people are refused credit on the grounds that they do not have a stable means of paying it. On the other hand, it is quite common for a consumer to accumulate excessive credit30.A solution to this would be the use of regulatory systems and which monitor and prevent bad debts. B. Positioning and Diverse Services The business of Banque Accord is30: (a) issuing different types of payment cards like for example, retail cards, gift cards and bank cards; (b) proffering consumer credit and other related services; and (c) managing its retail partners electronic processing of monetary transactions. Electronic Banking is a technical service directly given by Banque Accord to its retailers, which is a source of pride to the bank31. Its electronic banking services is geared towards functioning as a bank –â€Å"receiving† transactions – providing the support in the retailers’ issuance of cards, managing authorization, 23 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 6) 24 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 6) 25 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 6) 27 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 6) 28 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 8) 29 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 8) 3-0 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 8) 31 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 9) Banque Accord: A Case Study 4 2005, to form a division called CardOps33. Being owned by a retailing group, Banque Accord’s aim is ATMS, payment terminals, etc 32. Banque Accord’s electronic banking services were grouped together in proximity to its customers, and minimizing costs of electronic banking.The core business of Banque Accord is the issuing of a range of cards, which have different functions. The bank’s cards may be a type of payment, a retailer’s marketing tool, a â€Å"support† product of the bank that is incorporated in its associate d services34. It is widely said that an Accord card may be likened to a Swiss Knife with flexibility in functions — credit card, payment card and loyalty card 35. Various examples of an Accord card’s use are36: (a) Sample 137: Card Type : Retail Card Function : A payment card issued or released by retailerBanque Accord: Auchan cradholders total 4,000,000 in Europe, and the card is accepted by other retailers (b) Sample 238: Card Type : Loyalty Card Function : Retailer's marketing instrument which could be used to attract and maintain a loyal base of clients Banque Accord: N/A (c) Sample 339: Card Type : Bank Card Function : A traditional card issued by banks, this card may be used overseas Banque Accord: MasterCard Accord and VisaCard Accord (d) Sample 440: Card Type : Gift Card 32 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 9) 33 (Dauchy, 2007, p.9) 34 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 9) 35 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 9) 36 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 10) 37 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 10) 38 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 10) 39 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 10 ) 40 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 10) Banque Accord: A Case Study 5 Function : This type of card may be utilized to personalize service, and enhances customer relationships. Banque Accord: Auchan Gift Card Hence a card is useful to: ? the retailer, because it can be used as a marketing instrument and promotes consumer loyalty; and ? the consumer, because it is convenient means of financing and payment41There is a distinct connection between owning a card, how the type of card benefits the customer and the retailer, and the amount of business the customer does with the retailer42. It is established that a customer who has access to credit through cards increases his or her purchasing power. A client who has no card hardly visits a retailer in a month, owning a loyalty card enables a customer to make three visits. Having a retail card allows the client to make four visits per month to the favorite retailer and having a bank card gives the client the opportunity to make at least five visits to th e retailer 42.Banque Accord boasts of an orientation which is discount-oriented and customer-oriented43. Banque Accord has two selling and pricing concepts44: — annual subscription; and — cash back, which is defined as the money paid to the customer related t his or her card use. For example in France, Banque Accord gives a 40% discount incentive to annual subscribers for a refular Visa Card, and 60% discount on a Visa Premiere Card45. Based on the spending habits of the customers, an annual subscription increases the potential for the cleints' purchasing statistics. Other Financial ProductsApart from cards, Banque Accord also offers its clients other services, lilke46: (1) in-store credit wherein the individual retailers define their own credit policies along with different formulas for achieving revenue; (2) personal loans, which are granted to customers as a come-on, at interest rates based on current market prices; (3) revolving credit, which is built up by a credi t reserve; 41 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 10) 42 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 10) 43 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 10) 44 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 10) 45 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 12) 46 (Dauchy, 2007, p. 10) Banque Accord: A Case Study 6 (4) Auchan savings account;(5) life insurance, which is a tieup with Suravenir and offers life plans at simple and reduced costs; and (6) non-life insurance. As evidenced by the wide range of â€Å"other† services that Banque Accord offers, its value chain is distinguished by a huge number of product alliances47. Thus, Banque Accord has been known for its flexibility. As a result, the bank has largely-increased the potential spending capacity of its client-base. Sometimes, the bank's products are managed by other partners — at times their competitors — depending on which country the operation is in48.

Financial Distress Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Financial Distress - Essay Example The inevitable natures of factors which interplay and caused this financial turmoil on a global scale make business decisions difficult especially in areas of retrenchment. For a university which had been in operation for 164 years since its foundation in 1845, Cornell University is not exempt from the global financial crunch. As such, strategies and efforts are being evaluated to assess the possibility of retrenchment to ensure the very survival of the organization. It is in this regard that this essay is written to explain the circumstances of the financial distress and to outline an action plan where the principles of retrenchment would be implemented in order to restore equilibrium. In the year end statement written by the president of Cornell University, David J. Skorton on July 1, 2009, he identified the following effects of the global financial crisis in Cornell University, to wit: (1) a looming budget shortfall in one of its major colleges, Ithaca; (2) a 27% reduction in endowment (â€Å"reducing base budgets across the university; drawing down uncommitted fund balances; reducing endowment spending by 15 percent; implementing a construction pause, during which we reconsidered a number of proposed new projects, and decided not to pursue over $662 million in incremental capital expenditures; implementing an external hiring pause, which preserved opportunities for current Cornell employees who lost their jobs; and responsibly reducing our workforce†) and (3) a reduction in the cost of university administration in order to focus precious resources on core activities of teaching, learning, discovery, scholarship and outreach, among others. (Cornell Univer sity, University Statements, 2009) The university applies the following principles of retrenchment: (1) Selective Retrenchment Efforts where the university will use curtailment or reduction of selective activities, functions or

HR Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

HR Management - Essay Example In the case of human resource management in the hospitality industry, it is necessary to take into account the vulnerability of hospitality employment across the globe. This causes it to be subject to regulation in areas such as miminum wages (Lucas 2003). The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) indicates that the tourism and hospitality industry is an important employment sector in both developed and developing countries. It provides over 230 million jobs, or 8.7 percent of jobs worldwide. However, there are concerns pertaining to the type of employment experience within the sector, with pessimistic views of human resource management practice based on nature of the labour market and the reliance on â€Å"marginal† workers (Nickson 2007). Thesis Statement: The purpose of this paper is to critically review the notion that the management of human resources in the hospitality industry differs from other industries. ... volvement and participation schemes, and in union work places including negotiations between management and union representatives over decisions affecting the employment contract (Bratton & Gold 2001). Human resource management is an organizational core competency, it has a unique capability that creates high value and distinguishes an organization from competitors â€Å"in areas such as productivity, quality/ service, employee skills, and innovative changes† (Mathis & Jackson 2010: 31). Human resource management uses human capital, which is the collective value of the capability, knowledge, skills, life experiences and motivation of an organizational workforce. The responsibilities of human resource personnel can be grouped as â€Å"strategic human resource management; equal employment opportunity; staffing; talent management; compensation and benefits; health, safety, and security; and employee and labour relations. Human resource management is a vital part of organizationa l culture and plays a significant role by impacting human values, competitive advantages and global cultures. Key outcomes include increased productivity and fulfillment of organizational social responsibility. Human Resource Management in the Hospitality Industry â€Å"Different economic, social, legal and political factors create particular cultures and diverse employment systems† (Lucas 2003: 1). Membership of hospitality industry employees in trade unions is low, though in some countries collective agreements cover all workers. The approach towards providing good quality service is improving human resource practices. This debate is underscored by a number of theories of human resource management which form a framework for the strategies employed by tourism and hospitality organizations. It is

Romania Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Romania - Essay Example The Revolution in Romania in 1989 led to scores of deaths and put an end to Communist rule in Romania. Ceausescu and his wife were summarily produced before a sham court, declared guilty of mass murder, sentenced and executed by the end of 1989. If we step away from these incidents and look at the years preceding, we will see that till 1947 Romania was truly liberal in its politics and economic organization. During the next twelve years Soviet style government was imposed on Romania and the party's dictates had to be followed, The Securitate (police) was at the centre of a net of covert Russian style security system created to keep a watch on even private lives of people, this was later to be exploited by Ceausescu. The activities of the Church were restricted and in its stead, mass organizations were put into place mainly to harness public opinion. Stalinist style planning was introduced and industrial production tended to lean more toward heavy machinery rather than goods for mass consumption. Artists and writers were expected to express the views of the State. Everything Soviet was eulogized and emulated. But, Romanians did not sympathize with this regime. This resistance led to the imposition of COMECON and the Warsaw Treaty Organization, created to counter the military and economic influence of the Western Allies. Increasing disenchantment with Communist Russia and the emergence of Romanian national Communism led to a relatively liberal period during the 1960's when curbs on artists were relaxed and health care and social benefits were introduced along with interactions with the United States. This situation even led to the "declaration of independence" by the Romanian Communist Party m albeit still under the basic Communist structure. Nicolae Ceausescu continued with this 'liberal' trend disallowing Warsaw Pact military maneuvers in Romania and really showed his fangs when he suddenly advocated a return to rigid orthodoxy when once again, private life was intruded on and the supremacy of the Party was above all. 2 In his 24 years in power Ceausescu attempted to spread Communism through his ban on abortion from the 1960's. This was supposed to increase the Communist population to over 20 million by the beginning of the second millennium. To enforce this, a clampdown was imposed on abortions and the use of contraceptives coupled with a law stating that each couple has at least five children. Monetary rewards were bestowed after the birth of each child and a family with more children would be given 500 lei monthly. The result was that the overwhelming population of children had to be moved to orphanages. Over 100000 million children were inmates of these state run orphanages and living under the threat of imminent disease and abuse. The healthy ones were picked to be trained to join the infamous state police or Securitate and the frail were left to their own fate in filthy conditions m uncared for and unwanted.3 In conclusion it should be mentioned that after Ceausescu's execution, these orphanages were visited by journalists and then the impact of the calamity was really felt. But nothing much has been done about these orphanages - the children continue to remain there under terrible conditions and inadequate medical care. With

Should Human Embryonic Stem Cells be used in Scientific Research Essay

Should Human Embryonic Stem Cells be used in Scientific Research - Essay Example More than 20 years ago, scientists discovered how to derive stem cells from mouse embryos (NIH 2005), but more recently the potential for using human stem cells has been realized. The use of stem cells in medical research hinges on the fact that stem cells have the potential to differentiate into any of the cell types within the body in response to chemical signals. Theoretically they are able to divide limitlessly until they do become differentiated. Extensive research is being carried out in various parts of the world to determine the specific combination of chemical signals that will induce stem cells to differentiate into brain and nerve tissue as well as an array of organ tissue, including heart, pancreas, and liver. Stem cells are a potential source of an unlimited supply of replacement cells and tissues which can be used in treatments and cures for human diseases, as well as to explore the causes of diseases. For example, stem cells could be induced to differentiate into insulin-producing pancreatic cells which could be used to treat diabetes. This year, a team of researchers at Johns Hopkins University derived embryonic stem cells from mouse embryos, and transplanted these into paralyzed rats (JHMI, June 20, 2006). With the application of a surprisingly small number of cells, the paralysis was entirely cured, and the rats were able to walk again. It goes without saying that regenerating nerve tissue is a remarkable achievement. This research has the potential to be developed into treatments which could substantially increase the quality of life for millions of people suffering from a diverse range of illnesses. According to Douglas Kerr, the neurologist who led the research team, treatments b ased on this research could one day repair the damage done by Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Lou Gehrig's disease), multiple sclerosis, or traumatic spinal injury. With small adjustments, this approach could effectively treat Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease. The human embryos used in the first successful attempts to isolate stem cells for laboratory use were derived from unneeded in vitro fertilization procedures (NIH 2005), and were used with the informed consent of the donor. However, as stem cell research has become more popular and the potential for it has been more fully realized, the need for consistent sources of cells has become more apparent, and this need has become a hotly-debated source of contention. In the United States, for example, there has been considerable debate over the past five years as to whether the government should fund research using frozen human embryos which are stored by in vitro fertilization clinics. Embryos used in such research would be approximately five days old (Associated Press, 2006) and would be destroyed in the research process. Opposition to the use of Human Embryonic Stem Cells on Religious Grounds Opposition of the use of human embryonic stem ce

Cardiovascular disease Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Cardiovascular disease - Term Paper Example This is usually in the legs. The symptom of the disease is pain in the legs when one is walking. The pain is like cramp that is felt as it comes and goes (Braunwald, 2007). Coronary heart disease occurs in the body of an individual when the flow of blood that is rich in oxygen is reduced or blocked by fatty material in the coronary artery. The coronary arteries are essential for supplying the heart with blood, when they are blocked; it results to the condition of a heart attack. The infection leads to chest pain, a condition referred to as angina (Braunwald, 2007). Aortic disease is a condition that results to weakening of the walls of the aorta and makes the blood vessel to bulge outwards. The condition is then associated to pain in the chest, the back or in the abdomen. The most common disease that is associated to aortic disease is aortic aneurysm. There are risk factors that make one more likely to get the condition. The several risk factors that are associated to cardiovascular disease include high blood pressure, being physical inactive, obesity, and high levels of cholesterol in the blood, diabetes and family history with infection by the disease (Hampton, 2003). With consideration of age, the elderly are likely to develop the condition as compared to the young. Prevalence in sex shows that men are more exposed to develop the condition as compared to women. Men are able to develop the condition at an earlier age as compared to women. Age is a risk factor that is associated to the disease. The risk is estimated to be 82% for those that are older than 65. The risk of stroke is observed from the age of 55. The explanation that is given to the age and risk of cardiovascular disease is relation to serum cholesterol level. In the large population the serum total cholesterol level increases with increase in the age. Cardiovascular disease through research has been considered a being health problem. A

Contract Law Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Contract Law - Coursework Example The element of mutual agreement requires parties to agree on the terms of the contract. It stresses that the agreement must have an offer and acceptance. Finally, the element of consideration required for one party to agree to agree to a specific set of terms at an agreed price. The doctrine of consideration is one of the most crucial and controversial issues in the law of contract.1 It is crucial because for a contract to be valid, consideration must be present. In the absence of consideration, a contract is considered to be invalid and not binding to the parties involved in the contract. This is referred to as â€Å"nundum pactum†, that is, a promise made with no supporting agreement. The two main rules of a consideration are that is required to move from the promisee but does not have to move to the promisor, and it does not have to be adequate but needs to be sufficient. The cost-benefit analysis of contracts aims at making sure that parties do not enter into contracts that they will not benefit in one way or another. The doctrine of consideration has over the years developed as seen in the case of Williams v Roffey Bros. and Nicholls(Contractor)Ltd [1991] 1 QB 1.2 In this case, it is clear that little is needed in a contract for consideration to exist. However, even with consideration, not all contracts are fair, and consideration is not sufficient in dealing with these new problems. The doctrine of duress has become crucial in solving complex business relationships especially in monopoly situations. Economic duress is unacceptable uses of economic power aimed at making the victim submit to demand. Its development has affected the doctrine of consideration. Contracts are considered to be an exchange of agreements or promises between parties, which binds them legally. However, the mere fact that there is an agreement does not make a contract legal. The doctrine of consideration is very crucial yet

Gods command Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Gods command - Essay Example This passage shows that human beings are nothing without God and we cannot achieve anything until God decides to bestow his blessing upon us and fulfill our needs and wants. No matter how hard we work and no matter how educated or literate we become, we cannot achieve anything in this world without the blessings of God. For example, An individual who studies hard day and night can only end up scoring an â€Å"A† grade in his/her exam if God wants to allow him that grade. We should not only work hard, we should even pray hard and bow down before God if we want to achieve our aims and objectives. God has the ability to perform miracles such as the miracle of water flowing out of rock is one of the greatest examples of miracles that God can perform. This tells us that we should not be scared of anyone or any huge obstacle in our life. This even tells us that we should have faith in God and work hard and a combination of belief in God and hard work will help us in crossing the mos t difficult obstacles in our life. We see our politicians taking credit for performing very important tasks. Due to this we end up following them as we believe that these politicians will help us in attaining our aims and objectives in life. Firstly, these politicians should realize that they are nothing if God and if God does not want them to be popular, they will never become popular. God uses human beings to help His people as He cannot come to earth and help us out. So instead of praising the human element.

The Use of E-Commerce and E-Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

The Use of E-Commerce and E-Business - Essay Example In the report, it is evident that different industries are improving all the processes at the organization level. In a different industry, in the past, the management was focusing on increasing production and generating revenues due to these two factors they were able to attract their franchisees that they have to show interest in their brands. But now they can reduce the total costs and can enhance their brands with the adoption of innovative technologies. The integration of marketing and procurement operations with e-commerce showed that the persons who are involved in supply chains assure that the integration of innovative technologies is warmly welcome. For electronic business, there is need of training of the staff persons and the notable thing is that they must have to observe the importance of the benefits of electronic systems. The electronic business is a continuously changing area and the electronic systems are very flexible and can be modified and upgraded according to the needs of the organization. The electronic business technologies are serving as an important management tool for increasing the overall performance of the supply chains.The e-procurement in different industries is in an infancy state and a rapid increase is expected in the functionality of e-commerce that would assist in making strong relationships with suppliers and buyers using electronic environment. From the benefits of e-commerce, it is obvious that it would increase the rate of adoption of innovative technologies, if the doubts related to e-commerce, are reduced to a level of utmost satisfaction of industry experts. The said research would help the industry experts in all the areas of different departments to better plan for the future adoption of IT/IS or e-commerce technologies. When the firms have to switch from traditional approaches to innovative online solutions then it would help the firm in significant savings, improvement in the production and increase in the operatio nal efficiencies. Using electronic systems e.g. e-procurement there would be better communication between business partners.

Enhanced Reading Instructions Essay Example for Free

Enhanced Reading Instructions Essay Differentiated Instructional need of students makes it imperative for a teacher to plan out her instruction in small groups and separate reading centres to give students ample practice. Teachers form small flexible groups of students ,meeting twice or thrice a week for a specific time. The teacher draws up similar structure† to generate ideas, stimulate thinking, make plans and create a desire†. (Cited in Guiding writing and Observing Reading, p. 385). Teachers† find more opportunity to use their knowledge and skills more fully and effectively†. (cited in Making Instructional Decisions, p. 461). â€Å"Many use alternative strategies in   order to meet the special need of the students† (Modifying Lessons, p. 461) Alternative lesson structures recommends the use of at least two types of lesson structures. One Guided Reading and the other Skill Focused Lessons. It follows a pattern where the text is selected, introduced, read and discussed. In a Teacher- led- centre, â€Å"the option most favored today, centre on integrated curriculum, an effort to connect the language arts with other subject areas, often through themes. Integration is encouraged across all subject areas, including math â€Å". (Basal Readers and Instructional Materials, Chp13, p. 0) â€Å"Skill development and practice activities are often interspersed with creative enrichment ideas in the teacher’s guide. †(Chp13, p. 460) Students who need focused learning to become fluent and accurate in their usage, Skill Focused Lessons are planned out by a teacher, like †writing, talking,.. brainstorming role playing, doodling, drawing, cartooning, jotting own ideas, taking notes, interviewing and even forming mental images through visualization and graphic organizers. †(Guiding Writing and Observing Reading p. 385). Thus guidelines are set , which help enhance effective reading writing in a classroom. Reference http://www.fcrr.org/assessment/pdf/smallgroupalternativelessonstructures.pdf

Outline and Speech Essay Example for Free

Outline and Speech Essay My life before becoming a non-traditional student was very typical and average. At 34, I was a mother of two kids and was trying to juggle between my family and work life. I did not have a particularly hard time between the two and even felt dissatisfied about my professional life. I had been working as a salon manager for about 15 years and I was also into retail management at that time. For some people, this can be regarded as a big achievement. However, I was not contented at all and it got to the point where I felt that I had already reached the end. There was no room for growth and there were not much opportunity to make more money, which I needed to support my family. I toyed with the idea of going back to school for a very long time. I felt that my life was too complicated for me to go back. I had a family with two children to think about and it is important for me to not miss any quality time with them. Although I knew that there were many other non-traditional students out there and that the idea of going back to school is not new anymore, I still had my doubts and I thought of my decision for quite some time. I did think about the advantages for me and the negative effects it would bring mainly to my family. I also had questions regarding the cost of receiving a degree, as well as the financial aid options that are available for me. I was also very conscious of the fact that this generation is very different from what I knew when I was still in school. Young people nowadays are very liberated and have many bright ideas, which would help them excel in their fields. As for me, I was this middle-aged woman trying to fit in in this new world. See more: what is essay format However, this feeling did not last long because I discovered that I was not the only non-traditional student in the school and that the school is very accommodating to students like us. The younger students are liberated but this fact also helped because they are more open to things like non-traditional students. The most important factor that led to my decision of going back to school was my thirst for more and for better things for my family. I had my second daughter in December of 2005 and I was able to take an extended leave of one year after that pregnancy. When I went back to work, I felt something different. I had manager hours, which is very convenient for me and the pay was not that bad either. However, I was bursting with so much drive, ambition, and motivation and I felt that I had so much more to offer than just become a salon manager all my life. In 2007, after 15 years of working, I finally had the courage to leave my job and go back to school. To say that I was nervous is an understatement. I was giddy, excited, and scared all at the same time. I did not know what to expect after 16 years of being out of school. Sure, I can read about the latest news on the Internet and even see some of what is going on but experiencing it first-hand is very different. Still, the thing that made me survive and take it all in was the fact that this decision while it can affect my family, it will ultimately be beneficial for me and nobody else’s. I was doing it for me because I wanted to achieve greater things in life. I have a very busy life as a non-traditional student at this time. I am now in my third semester here at NSU and I believe that I am doing great in terms of school work. Contrary to what I feared before, I have no problems handling my personal and family life. Both of my kids are very active socially and academically and I make sure that I still have the time to guide them with their activities. After finishing my courses, I believe that I will be better equipped and prepared to take greater responsibilities. I would be more confident that my career path would not be a dead-end like before. I would therefore like to state that this decision of becoming a non-traditional student has proved to be beneficial to me and to the people around me.

Tesco PLC And Its International Communications Strategy Commerce Essay

Tesco PLC And Its International Communications Strategy Commerce Essay Tesco plc is the fourth largest retailer in the world after Wal-Mart, Carrefour and Home Depot, and the largest supermarket retailer in the UK, McLoughlin Aaker (2010, p126). The company was founded after WW1, and is widely recognised for having expanded its services during the 1990s away from groceries. In the last quarter of 2009 the company had a 31% share of the entire UK grocery market, with a reported gross turnover of 59.4 billion for the fiscal year 2008/2009. Cornelissen J (2005, p23) defines corporate communications at its most basic level as a management function that offers a framework and vocabulary for the effective coordination of all means of communications with the overall purpose of establishing and maintaining favourable reputations with stakeholder groups upon which the organization is dependant.   Cornelissen (2004, p32) provides an alternative synopsis of corporate communications via a historical perspective, defining five central or core themes. The realisation by the 1900s that organizations so as to stay afloat had to practice and engage through communications with a number of groups in the environment. For the larger part of the 20th century, managing communications had been defined predominantly via public relations and marketing divisions, this being an intrinsically limited approach, thus contemporary forms of communications management have integrated these divisions into the wider corporate communications function. Furthermore the shift from rigid to flexible market landscapes, and increasingly competitive marketplaces, this together with a greater call from society for corporate citizenship, pushing many organizations into stakeholder management strategies, and finally the relationship of corporate communications with the stakeholder era, and the need to build and ma nage relationships with stakeholder groups upon which the organization is economically and socially dependent. In this paper, Ill discuss and talk about The External and Internal communications. Identity, reputation and image, Culture and its influence in corporate communications for Tesco, The role of technology in corporate communication, Internal-the role of HR corporate Communication. Hargie D Tourish D (2004, p3) outline the scope of communication strategy and organizational success with an emphasis on internal communications proposing a systematic approach to the construction of a seaworthy communications strategy and the rigorous evaluation of all steps taken along the way. In the same way that Cornelissen J (2005), in the context of a historical understanding defines a shift in communications strategies and practices, the authors spell out a contemporary paradigm. Quirke, (1995, p76) is cited to have defined the traditionally bound or understood terms of organizational communication, such as the announcement of management conclusions, and the ensuring of consistent information, making messages easily comprehensible, and easy to disseminate. The authors go on to cite Quirkes further suggestions relative to the attempt to widen organizational participation and involvement, inclusive of the stimulation of thinking, participation and ideas, the networking of know how and learning across the organisation, the involvement of all employees in improving processes, the identification of ways of providing additional value to customer and lastly the expansion of what all employees believe is possible, Hargie D Tourish D (2004, p19), also see Quirke, (1995, p77). Quirke is further cited in so as to summarize this contemporary view of communications, the role of communication becomes not the top-down dissemination of management thinking, but the bottom-up means of connecting those who know what needs to change to those who have authority to make change happen. With respect to issues of external communications a number of fundamental questions are defined; who is communicating with whom? Which issues receive the most attention and arouse the most anxiety? How much information are people are receiving and sending on crucial issues? how much interpersonal trust exists; and how the overall quality of working relationships can be characterized? such iss ues are among the core concerns of efforts to establish what has been termed organisational climate (Lammers, 1994). The authors go on to outline the way in which a communications audit can be implemented citing a five stage sequential model devised by Baker, (1999) beginning with the selection of a topic, followed by an outlining of desired performance in relation to criteria and standards. The third stage entailing collection of objective data, fourthly the implementation of appropriate changes to improve performance, and lastly the collection of data to check for changes induced by the model. Van Riel suggests a framework for the coexistence of a number of communications functions in a single organization, this being particularly relevant to a company such as Tesco which as a result of its product and market diversification is concerned with a number or varying communication channels. Van Riels framework relates to internal concerns of an organization or company, as described by Barker Angelopulu (p371), Van Riel proposes a framework for organizations to stimulate cooperation among all relevant communication functions by defining the baseline of corporate communication. Three ultimate stages are devised by Van Riel, the definition of common starting points, the use of common operational systems and lastly the coordination of decision making. http://www.emeraldinsight.com/content_images/fig/1680120205001.png Figure 1, Van Riel, Internal Communications Framework McLoughlin, Aaker (2010) define Tescos success and growth over the past three decades directly in relation to its strategy and image, further relating it to market segmentation. The authors outline a number of strategic initiatives such as its managed range of four differing level brand product, finest range of premium products, Tesco healthy living, value range and Tesco organic range and furthermore describing the way in which the company changed customer perceptions of the brand itself, Secondly the company mantra has shifted form maximising shareholder value to maximising customer value. While the underlying objective is naturally to make higher profits this is specifically done while focusing on customer service (2010, p127). The third term which Damien McLoughlin, David A define is that of its diversification strategy which as outlined is based on four key principles, these being the innovation and expansion into the core UK grocery market and into areas like convenience store s; innovating through expansion into non food business like consumer electrics, clothing health beauty CDs and DVDs and even developing its non food finest and value ranges; expanding into retail services like personal finance telecoms and utilities by entering into joint ventures with major players in these industry sectors; finally, expanding internally which accounted for more than 25% of sales in 2008/9 with plans for further expansion in international markets including India and China, Damien McLoughlin, David A. Aaker (2010) Considering the expansion and diversification of Tescos services and products, in addition to the widening of its potential targeted market landscape, the initially defined terms of corporate communications devised by Cornelissen J (2005) and Hargie D Tourish D (2004), central to which are ideas of integration, and the crossing of functional boundaries, seem most appropriate. Despite the broad range of services and products offered by Tesco, there are in existence a number of unifying terms to which the organization would need adhere to, such as Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), and an overall brand value. The organizations present a number of terms which embody the core purpose of Tesco as a business, Value via competitive prices, product choice and high food quality, helpfulness via customer service, availability and customer communications, inclusiveness via the means of ensuring that the organization appeals to a broad range of customers, something for everybody, and innova tion via new product development and retails services technology. Chaffey et al (2009) outline Tescos strategy of diversification predominantly in terms of internet marketing and implementation, citing the chief executive of Tescos Terry Leahy from the Sunday Times, we will be the worlds biggest online grocery retailer and we intend to become the UKs No.1 e-commerce business (Lorenz and Nuki, 1999), further defining the way in which Tescos affirmed expansion was aligned to its expansion in providing wider products and services, in 2000, the online services diversified, offering many non food product ranges and financial services. The terms of diversification are understood predominantly in relation to internet shopping and service innovations, By 2003 96% of the UK population could shop online with Tesco.com giving the commonly 65% of the UK online grocery shopping market and further diversification of product ranges, e.g. financial services and telecoms. Specific innovations such as DVD services to the door, a rental film DVD service, the provisio n of energy utilities whereby customers can save money on their house bills, initiatives and schemes to promote better health such as online -diet services which help customers to tailor their food shopping and diets, and telephone services, Currently Tesco is focusing on the development of TESCO direct, which offers customers a wide range of non-food goods as well as launching a range of own brand computer software. Currently Tesco accounts for approximately 66% of the UKs online shopping market. Dave Chaffey et al (640; 2009). Oliver (1997, p128) suggests a communications framework in relation to IT technology which ultimately aligns terms of cultural values and beliefs of an organization with the organizations vision. The author presents a model devised by Goldberg Sifonis (1993) titled communication framework, which relies on the assumptions of management which are adopted on an intuitive basis and that need to be communicated with internal and external stakeholders, as described by the author, from that, a dynamic campaign plan or communication framework is produced which clearly represents the cultural values and beliefs of an organization aligned to its vision, Oliver (1997, p128). It is widely referred to throughout literature that the role of HR in terms of wider communications strategies is immensely under emphasised, HR departments most often not being considered under the scope of a communications department. The U.S. society for HRM asserts the way in which communications and HR should be closely related within any organizational framework, specifying the role of HR in terms of communication as a way by which to assert any given culture as alive and healthy. HR is predominantly responsible for and concerned with internal communications in this respect. Turner (2003, p20) proposes a model which adapts the traditional framework of linking HRM and performance. Turners model incorporates communications into the entire model. For example at the stage of HR strategy, the author suggests good communication as a tool by which to join up HR policies and strategies. In terms of HR practices, the author outlines, effective people management practices to be communica ted to line managers, and directly in relation to terms of financial performance, the author suggests efficient communication of a culture of good people practice, this being particularly important to an organization such as Tesco plc, which falls into the category of a dominant, large multi-national corporation, at risk of gaining a bad reputation for this very reason. In this regard, HR can come up with different strategies which can be fruitful for the organization in the long run. Apart from making different rules and regulation for the organization, HR can be the beacon of light in devising strategies to enhance corporate communication and can train its employees to effectively deal with it. To Conclude this, Pelsmacker P et al (2005, p228) define a number of channels adopted by the Tesco organization so as to communicate to as wide a consumer market as possible. For example the authors define the Tesco club card magazine, describing the aims as the creation of fun and information, managing the communicated core Tesco brand values and services. The authors further outline the engendering of lasting brand loyalty, and contribute significantly to customer awareness of new areas and lastly the increase up take of other Tesco ventures particularly in non food, the authors go onto to describe, At forward publishing, they realised very quickly that you cant talk to someone in their twenties in the same way that you would to a person in their sixties, resulting in various targeted, specific magazines. The organization identified five life stages from Club card data, creating five different copies of the clubcard magazine. This is defined as just one initiative amongst many more such as Tesco lifestyle scheme and the Tesco loyalty program which gave the organization the ability to customize and further optimize the customer expertise. As an international organization, concerned with such a diverse range of services the Tesco organization embody and epitomize the very need to diversify and integrate communications approaches, as described by Cornelissen and to implement the bottom up means of connecting those who know what needs to change to those who have the authority to make change happen as defined by Quirke (1995). Further analysis of Tesco plc in terms of corporate communications would need to incorporate quantitative data in addition to a qualitative assessment; furthermore the role of a communications strategy would need to be discussed further, directly in relation to Tescos brand and product diversification.